Artificial Islands & Reclamation: Worth the Cost?

TEMPO.CO, Jakarta - The vast adoption of artificial islands in well-developed countries like Singapore, China, and the United Arab Emirates has highlighted the attractions of artificial islands. However, there is still an ongoing debate as to whether or not land reclamation is an effective infrastructure solution. This article reveals the truth behind artificial islands, including the definition, the purpose, the famous success stories, and the cost, as cited from various sources. What is an Artificial Island? An artificial island is a man-made island, referring to islands created by reclamation rather than natural processes. An artificial island involves land reclamation by depositing sand, soil, and many other construction materials to penetrate the water surface and create an island. Also known as land reclamation, artificial islands have a long history dating way back to the reclaimed islands of ancient Egypt, the ceremonial islands built during the Aztec Empire, and Stilt crannogs discovered in Irish lakes. While the majority of artificial islands in the past were built for agricultural purposes, land reclamation has become more prevalent due to space constraints. Today, more nations are creating artificial islands to alleviate overpopulation and to accommodate new urban expansions to meet industrial needs. What Are the Purposes of Artificial Island Construction? The construction of artificial islands can lead to economic and geopolitical advantages related to land scarcity, tourism expansion, infrastructure development, and offshore facilities. The following are some of the main intentions in the construction of artificial islands. 1. Religious and Ceremonial Center In ancient times, land reclamation was associated with religious practices. One of the most popular examples is on the southeast coast of Pohnpei where Nan Madol is located. Nan Madol consists of more than 100 islands that serve as the ceremonial center of the Saudeleur dynasty. At least one series of 92 artificial islands are connected by a network of canals. 2. Agriculture Chinampas was once an effective traditional agricultural technique widely used in the area of present-day Mexico City. During the Aztec Empire, several artificial islands were constructed for agriculture. Diverse agriculture was made possible by land reclamation, in which wooden poles interwoven with branches were built on shallow lake shores. 3. Land Expansion Many countries are reported to be facing land scarcity problems due to rapid population growth. In the midst of dense population and limited available land, more nations are moving toward artificial islands. Land reclamation acts as a preferred solution to provide additional space for new urban center purposes such as commercial, industrial, business districts, residential projects as well as transportation hubs. 4. Tourism Projects Artificial islands or land reclamation have become popular for tourism projects. These tourist-attracting projects aim to create recreational areas with luxurious resorts, enticing entertainment facilities, cultural attractions, water sports, and pristine beaches. The construction of artificial islands for tourism suggests extensive economic growth for countries. 5. Infrastructure Development Artificial islands can be built to provide land for infrastructure development such as offshore facilities, airports, and bridges, providing a well-controlled environment for large-scale construction projects. The Famous Artificial Islands or Land Reclamation Constructions More development of artificial islands or land reclamation facilities has been reported due to the rapid growth of the world's population. Some of the most famous artificial islands ever built are as follows. 1. China Islands China has embarked on the large-scale construction of artificial islands in pursuit of a nourished territorial claim in key trade routes. Located in the Spratly Islands of the South China Sea, the artificial islands serve as a central hub between the East and West networks. China has reclaimed approximately 3,200 acres of land in the process of forging these artificial islands. As a result, many environmental concerns have been raised due to the impact on the surrounding marine ecosystems. 2. Arabian Islands The artificial islands of Palm Jebel Ali, Palm Jumeirah, and Yas Island, located in the United Arab Emirates, are famous tourist attractions with leisure and entertainment centers. These islands were created to add more than 500 kilometers of beach. Another famous instance of artificial islands located in the Arab world is referred to as the Palm Tree Islands. Nestled in Dubai, the massive island was created in 2005 and successfully reclaimed about 56 kilometers of land to the coastline. The Cost of Artificial Islands The cost of an artificial island can vary depending on many factors such as the size of the land reclamation and materials used in the construction. However, artificial islands generally require a substantial investment in engineering, materials, labor, and design.

TEMPO.CO, Jakarta - Land reclamation has become a solution to transform unproductive areas into usable land for a wide range of purposes. Countries with limited space or rapidly growing populations, particularly, have often turned to this method to create new land for housing, agriculture, and industry. This article explores what you need to know about land reclamation and highlights several countries that have successfully implemented reclamation projects to expand their usable land, as cited from Britannica and Science Direct: What is a Land Reclamation? Land reclamation is the operation of making new land from the sea, river, or lake. It aims to revitalize biodiversity and enhance land conditions to increase productivity. The easiest procedure of land reclamation is to fill the target area with a vast amount of heavy rock and cement, which is then layered with clay and soil until it reaches the desired elevation. Types of Land Reclamation 1. Reclamation of arid land The purpose of reclamation of arid land is to transform dry soil or desert to functional land aimed at agriculture or settlement. This method typically involves the addition of water, fertilizer, and organic matter in order to improve environmental conditions and increase soil fertility. 2. Reclamation of salt-affected soils Soils contaminated with salt are often infertile and not suitable for agriculture. Sodium chlorides, carbonates, bicarbonates, and sulfates are the most common salts found in soils. Typically, water carries the salt into the soil, either saline irrigation or flood waters, or upward-moving saline groundwater. 3. This type of land reclamation includes choosing plants that can withstand salt, applying amendments, and reducing the salinity of the soil through irrigation. 4. Reclamation of swampy lands Swampy lands often have waterlogged soil that is not suitable for optimal utilization. The reclamation process of this type of land particularly involves drainage to improve soil quality. The outlet of water for the drainage is provided by digging a ditch from the swampy areas to a river, sea, or other natural water source. The size of the ditch depends on the amount of water to be carried and the slope gradient along the ditch. Through this method, swampy lands can then be converted into agricultural or residential land. 5. Reclamation of coastal areas Reclamation of coastal areas is the process of converting coastal areas into land that can be used for residential, industrial, and agricultural purposes. One of the applicable methods for this type of reclamation is to construct dikes at the same height as the shoreline and drainage the area between the dikes and the natural coastline. This land reclamation can have a negative impact on the ecosystem. It removed the wetlands that used to act as a buffer between the coastal areas and the ocean, altering water flows to adjacent regions and resulting in increased erosion in those parts of the city. 6. Reclamation of mine spoils Areas impacted by mining activities often result in damaged land. The challenge of this reclamation is compounded by the uneven and frequently steep terrain of the spoil-bank area, along with the raw and infertile nature of the spoil material. Smoothing the surface can lead to excessive compaction, which hinders plant growth. As a result, reclamation efforts for spoil banks typically prioritize reforestation, the establishment of grazing land, or the development of recreational spaces. 7. Reclamation of eroded, infertile, and “new” lands Reclamation of eroded land aims to improve infertile land in order to escalate its use. In humid regions, eroded areas are typically restored through reforestation, along with the removal of livestock from the site. Countries with Reclaimed Land There are some countries that have conducted land reclamation for various purposes, such as: 1. China Land reclamation has been a key national objective for China, with a total area of 5135.31 km2. A lot of the country’s areas have been reclaimed, such as the tidal flats surrounding the Yellow Sea, the Yangzi lowlands, regions in Shanghai and Wuhan, Macau, and the Hong Kong International Airport. 2. Netherlands In the Netherlands, land reclamation has been done since the 12th century AD. Many small freshwater or saltwater lakes were drained, transforming them into polders, resulting in 20% of reclaimed lands. The areas around these polders have experienced significant land subsidence as a result of these ongoing pumping operations. 3. South Korea Since the 1970s, South Korea has been employing private companies and advanced technology to plan and construct significant reclamation projects. The Seosan Reclamation Project, which began in 1980 and was finished in 1995, was the first major system organized by a private enterprise in the country. The U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, part of the U.S. Department of the Interior, is responsible for building and managing canals, dams, and hydroelectric power plants. Throughout its history, the bureau has converted over 10 million acres (approximately 4 million hectares) of arid land in the American West into productive farmland and pasture. 5. Singapore Singapore has always relied heavily on land reclamation as a means of expanding its usable land area. The nation with limited space has grown by almost 25% in the last 60 years, from 581.5 square kilometers (sq km) in 1960 to 725.7 sq km in 2019.

TEMPO.CO, Jakarta - Officials from the Philippines have accused China of illegal reclamation in the disputed territories in the South China Sea. The Philippines have previously said that China is unlawfully building an airfield on reclaimed land on Johnson South Reef at the disputed waters. "Chinese activities at the South China Sea continues to draw our concern. Recent reports suggest that they are embarking on bigger projects over the reclaimed areas," said the Philippines' Deputy Secretary of Defence, Pio Lorenzo Batino to the press on Thursday, January 22, 2015. Batino stopped short of detailing the progress that China has made - that said, Batino was quoted of saying that China is highly committed to the project, and that the progress is continuously being made. At the same occasion, the undersecretary of Foreign Affairs, Evan Garcia, described China's reclamation project as "incredibly massive", and that the project undermines the already fragile agreement between the claimants of the disputed territory, which stated that no parties should undertake any development project in the disputed area until a binding treaty could be reached. "China is not helping with the situation. This is not exactly what everyone understood as restrain," said Garcia. The several Asian nations are involved in the South China Sea dispute. China has repeatedly claimed that the waters are a part of its' sovereign territory - sparking furore in Brunei, Malaysia, Taiwan, and Vietnam. Last year, the Philippines accused China of illegal sand mining to assert its' claim over several reefs in the disputed territories. The Philippines has since filed a formal lawsuit to the United Nations (UN) to rebuke China's claim over its' territories in March 2014.

TEMPO.CO, Jakarta - Quoting Britannica, land reclamation refers to the process of improving lands to make them suitable for more intensive use. The practice has been carried out by some countries, mostly those with extensive coastlines but limited mainland territories. Singapore is one of the countries successfully conducting land reclamation. It continues to reclaim its coastline due to its limited mainland. According to sg101.gov.sg, the country has expanded by a fifth over the decades, from 581.5 square kilometers in 1960 to 725.7 square kilometers in 2019. In this article, we will discover other notable land reclamation projects in the world, citing the Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors (RICS). For further information, you may read more here: 1. Ras Malé, Maldives The Maldives is among the lowest-lying countries in the world. Given its archipelagic nature, the country is susceptible to being submerged, as sea levels are expected to rise to 30 cm by 2050. This condition has led the government to reclaim land from the sea, thus resulting in the initiation of the RasMalé reclamation project. It is regarded as the country's largest land reclamation project, with an estimated cost of MVR 1.4 billion. Covering an area of 1,150 hectares, the project will elevate the land by two meters at its edges and is expected to accommodate approximately 65,000 houses, the Housing Development Corporation reports. 2. Macau International Airport, China The People’s Republic of China is notorious for building new islands in the South China Sea to assert territorial sovereignty over the waters. Additionally, the country is set to carry out land reclamation at Macau International Airport in the second half of 2024. The Macao News reported that this project will expand the total area of the airport to 129 ha, thereby enhancing the airport’s capacity to accommodate 13 million passengers every year. 3. Marina Bay, Singapore Did you know that Singapore’s most celebrated Marina Bay was built on reclaimed land? It all started in 1971, when Singapore initiated an ambitious land reclamation project in an effort to anticipate increasing growth. Quoting ura.gov.sg, in 1994, the final 38 hectares of land were reclaimed at Bayfront to create the shore profile of Marina Bay. By the late 1990s, the Marina Bay area occupied a total of 360 hectares. The RICS notes that this project cost Singapore around SGD 600 million. Now, Marina Bay has become one of the city-state’s top tourist destinations, attracting visitors from all over the world. 4. The Palm Jumeirah, Dubai, UAE The United Arab Emirates is another country engaged in land reclamation. One of its most notable reclamation projects is the Palm Jumeirah in Dubai. This project forms part of the UAE's offshore developments and was made possible thanks to Dubai's substantial income from petroleum. Citing Britannica, the Palm Jumeirah is home to private residences and hotels. An estimated number of 10,000 people lived on the man-made island in the second decade of the 21st century. The project cost was approximately US$12 billion. In addition, the artificial island is named for its distinctive palm-like shape, which is clearly visible from the air. 5. Katwijk’s Coastal Defense, Netherlands Much of the Netherlands is below sea level, hence its country’s name—”Netherlands” means low-lying country. One of its land reclamation projects is in Katwijk, a coastal municipality and town. In 2015, the town constructed a 1 km-long dune financed by the Netherlands' national flood relief fund. Costing around €46 million, the resulting dune incorporated a car park with 663 spaces.

When a city needs more space to build on or better defences from coastal erosion, land reclamation can provide a solution. But the practice is not without its critics Land reclamation has been happening for centuries in low-lying countries like the Netherlands, where around 17% of the country’s current land has been reclaimed from the sea or lakes. Massive-scale land reclamation projects are a more recent phenomenon and have proved popular in places that have plenty of coast but not enough mainland to suit their needs. These projects can create land where once there was sea for all sorts of uses, from creating super-modern housing developments to an entertainment archipelago full of hotels, restaurants, theatres and shops. However, with predicted sea level rises making headlines on a regular basis, that new land must be ready for whatever climate change throws at it. With that in mind, it's a good time to revisit this feature (originally published in June 2021) and see what’s new in the world of land reclamation. Below are three more projects added on 6 February 2024, followed by the seven that featured when this article was first published.

With 80% of the country standing less than one metre above sea level, the Maldives is the lowest-lying country in the world. As sea levels are expected to rise as much as 30cm by 2050, it is little wonder the archipelagic nation’s government is exploring options to reclaim land from the sea. Ras Malé is the country’s largest land reclamation project to date and will be two metres above sea level at its edge, rising to three metres in the centre. It will contain 65,000 homes and President Mohamed Muizzu has stated that it will run entirely on renewable energy, from transport to its infrastructure and facilities. Result: The Maldives is planning for its future by creating new developments above expected sea level rises. Expect to see more of this from island nations in an era of climate adaptation.

Expansion of Macau International Airport is scheduled to begin in the second half of 2024, creating an extra 129ha of land when completed. More aircraft hangars, parking positions for planes and space for taxiing to and from the runway should allow the airport to increase its capacity to 13m passengers a year. Since 2000, around 2,500km2 has been added to coastlines around the world, with China’s biggest city Shanghai contributing 350km2 of that total. Result: Macau is aiming to grow its visitor numbers and diversify from gambling tourism (to its many casinos) to a wider variety of visitors. Growing its airport size and capacity is an integral part of that plan.

The cost of this port expansion in the Scottish Shetland Islands is more modest than the other mega-projects described in this feature, but it will be an important part of expanding the UK’s fish processing sector. Lerwick Port Authority’s chief executive, Calum Grains, said: “Reclamation projects have helped shape the modern harbour, most recently at the Holmsgarth fishing hub and the deep-water Dales Voe offshore industry support base.” Much further south in the UK, another land reclamation project is being planned for the Port of Dover, to create more space to process ferry passengers to France. It is hoped this will avoid some of the long queues holiday-goers have already experienced in recent summers. Result: The expansion of Lerwick’s port is part of its ongoing post-pandemic economic recovery, which includes supporting an increasing number of fishing and cargo vessels.

The Palm is the world’s most instantly recognisable land reclamation site, shaped like a giant palm tree stretching out into the Persian Gulf. Surrounded by an 11km breakwater, it’s visible from space and comes complete with its own monorail to get you around the man-made archipelago. Don’t expect to find affordable housing on the Palm though – it is a millionaire’s playground. Nearby, an even bigger land reclamation project called The World is designed like a map of the earth, with individual islands representing each country. Dredging work began in 2003 and while construction stalled during the global financial crash of 2008, many of the islands are now privately owned. Result: Palm Jumeirah is one of the Middle East’s most popular tourist destinations, thanks to its unique design.

Hong Kong is one of the most densely populated countries in the world and needs more space to house its growing population. Lantau Tomorrow Vision is a huge land reclamation project that’s going to create artificial islands off the coast of Lantau Island. The incredibly high cost of the project (HK$624bn) has attracted criticism, with 40% of Hong Kong residents against the plans, despite Hong Kong CEO Carrie Lam claiming it could provide up to 1.1m new homes. The High Court in Hong Kong recently rejected a local journalist’s application for a judicial review of the project. Result: Lantau Tomorrow Vision is a long way from being finished: the first set of residents won’t be moving in until 2034.

Jakarta, the fastest sinking city in the world, made a plan in 2014 to tackle rising sea levels and subsidence. It was called The Great Garuda (named after the shape of the mythical bird on Indonesia’s coat of arms) and meant creating 17 artificial islands off the island’s north coast. Consultants on the project hailed it as the only alternative to abandoning north Jakarta to the flood waters entirely. Four of the islands were created, but work has been halted because of opposition to the project. That opposition included fishing communities, whose income was drastically reduced by the pollution created by the land reclamation work. In 2017, Jakarta elected a new governor and permission to create the remaining 13 islands was revoked the following year. Result: Work on The Great Garuda has halted for now. A smaller project, called NCICD II is currently under way, focusing purely on flood defence (rather than combining it with housing).

Eko Atlantic City includes residential, commercial and financial properties in a project combining coastal protection and city expansion. Eventually providing housing for 250,000 people, it has an 8.5km-long sea wall, dubbed the Great Wall of Lagos, to protect Nigeria’s capital from coastal erosion and rising sea levels. However, the land reclamation has created a change in the water flows, leading to greater erosion in some surrounding areas, says Emeka Eleh FRICS, a partner in Ubosi Eleh & Co, an estate surveyor and valuer in Nigeria. And environmental groups say dredging from the nearby ocean floor has left local residents more vulnerable to storm surges. Result: Construction on the newly-formed land is well under way, with the 33-story Eko Pearl Towers one of the first to be completed in 2020.

Land reclamation work to create valuable waterfront real estate in Singapore began in 1969 and was completed in the 2000s. The Marina Bay area is incredibly popular with residents and visitors and is where you’ll find the famous triple-towered Marina Bay Sands – a massive resort and conference centre, as well as the durian-shaped Esplanade Theatre. Result: Marina Bay has become one of the country’s top destinations for restaurants, hotels and attractions.

Much of the Netherlands is below sea level, meaning coastal protection and flood prevention measures are high on the national agenda. Katwijk is a coastal beach resort about half an hour north-east of The Hague that was at risk of being washed away, with a flood wall that was too low and a town that had expanded beyond the defences. In 2015, Katwijk took advantage of the Netherland’s national flood relief fund to construct a 1km-long dune that slopes gradually out to sea over several hundred metres. Construction involved no deep dredging and the resulting dune incorporated a car park with 663 spaces. Result: Another success story on the Dutch coastline. The dune blends in with the local landscape and contains areas of vegetation for wildlife.

Penang, on the north-west coast of Malaysia, plans to create three new islands. Danish architect firm Bjarke Ingels Group envisioned a futuristic design focused on biodiversity and dubbed it BiodiverCity. Like Indonesia’s Great Garuda, critics worry it doesn’t go far enough to protect fish stocks. Fishermen have rejected the compensation offered by the government of RM20,000 (£3,406), as well as the Environmental Impact Assessment report on the project. Malaysian authorities say the development is going to be socially and economically inclusive and have suggested that a quarter of new homes created could be in the affordable housing price bracket of around RM350,000 (£60,000). Result: It looks set to be politically contentious and there are environmental concerns still to be addressed, but it’s going ahead.

Reclaiming land from the sea has become a popular way to develop coastal regions in China. But destroying wetlands and mangrove forests leaves populations vulnerable to the ravages of the rising seas, says Jiang Gaoming. China’s coastal regions are suffering from a shortage of land; reclaiming land from the sea has become an ever more popular solution to the problem. Shanghai now has plans to build a “city on the sea” in northern Hangzhou Bay, according to a report in the Yangtze Evening Post, with a planned area of 6.5 square kilometres and a population of 50,000 to 80,000. In 2006 Shanghai spent 40 billion yuan (around US$5.6 billion) on building Lingang New Town, of which 45% of its 133 square kilometres was reclaimed land. The city of Zhoushan, in Zhejiang province, invested 103 million yuan (US$14.5 million) in 2007 reclaiming 4.13 square kilometres of land. If this trend is not arrested, China’s coastal wetlands may be eradicated entirely. Land reclamation is a popular option in countries facing land scarcity. The Netherlands was one of the first countries to practice land reclamation and are world leaders in the field. Japan, Singapore, Hong Kong and Macau have also reclaimed land from the sea. But reclamation takes meandering coastlines and replaces them with straight lines, destroying mangrove forests and shallows in the process. It may appear to bring benefits in the short term, but in the long term it can cause ecological disaster. First, the loss of wetlands from land reclamation can worsen drought. Of course, it is the atmosphere that transports water from the oceans to the land, but diminishing wetlands mean less evaporation – and a reduction in rainfall. North China has suffered very dry weather in recent years, with levels of precipitation falling year on year, and this is related the many ponds and pools that dry out and are built over. Second, land reclamation can mean the loss of biodiversity and fisheries. Coastal shallows, mangrove forests and intertidal zones are where the land and the sea meet. When artificially separated, nutrients from the land no longer flow into coastal waters, threatening crabs, shrimp, clams and other organisms, which rely on this source of food. This has an impact on the ocean food chain and the fishing industry, not to mention some land-dwelling animals. Salt and fresh water ecosystems are also intimately connected. For example, the Chinese sturgeon lays its eggs in the Jinsha River, a tributary of the Yangtze, but land reclamation can affect the migratory patterns of these important fish stocks. Third, land reclamation causes flooding. Wetlands form a buffer between the ocean and the land, absorbing much of the ocean’s force. Land reclamation destroys this natural buffer, and can have potentially disastrous consequences. On December 26, 2004, an earthquake in the Indian Ocean caused a series of tsunamis that killed more than 200,000 people in at least 13 countries and left many more homeless. In one place hit by a tsunami – Marina Beach in Chennai, India – houses had been built right up to the edge of the coast, some on reclaimed land. If natural vegetation – particularly mangrove forests – had been left in place, much of the energy of the tsunami would have been absorbed by the wetlands, reducing the deaths and injuries. In Thailand’s Ranong Mangrove Reserve, mangrove forests acted as a barrier, meaning homes were left untouched, unlike those only 70 kilometres away, which did not enjoy the same protection, and were flattened. We can also look at China’s own experience. In the second half of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1912), the shallows of the Pearl River Delta were reclaimed for agriculture. First, rocks were thrown into the sea to trap sediment. Then a stone dam was built across the river mouth, causing the sediment to be deposited and the river channel to narrow. In the rainy season, however, water could not pass through fast enough, and flooding would occur. County records from the time record: “In 1839, Guo Jinxiang, a man in Panyu county, built a 10-kilometre dyke in the south of Nansha village and claimed the new land as his own. Since the artificial dyke blocked the flow of the river, there were floods every month for three months. Fields and houses in low-lying areas were completely inundated. With two rivers flooding, to the east and the north, the inundation continued for over a month, submerging large areas of fields and crops and causing a localised famine. As the crisis worsened the emperor forbade the creation of new agricultural land in the counties of Panyu, Shunde, Xiangshan and Xinhui.” Fourth, land reclamation exacerbates the phenomenon of “red tides”, or harmful algal blooms. Restricting the tides artificially means nutrients accumulated in river deltas flow more quickly into the sea. Particularly if reclaimed land is used for aquaculture, large quantities of organic matter and nutrients will be carried by the tides to the ocean, triggering massive algal blooms, threatening ocean organisms and causing die-offs among fish and shellfish populations. Lastly, land reclamation destroys natural landscapes. Over time, land is shaped and reshaped, and eventually reclaimed by the ocean. The process is a slow one that nature has time to adapt to, but if it takes place too quickly serious damage can be done – and coastal populations are left at risk. Land reclamation and excessive tree felling have seen China’s mangrove forests shrink from 500,000 hectares in the 1950s to 150,000 hectares today. Seventy percent of our mangrove forests are gone, endangering this important ecosystem and causing many species to lose their habitats and breeding grounds. The practice may be temporary solution to land shortages, but it means the destruction of ecosystems and a loss of security for China’s economy and society. The Netherlands is now returning its land to wetlands to avoid ecological damage caused by excessive human intervention. Coastal wetlands are constantly threatened by the pressures of profit. Unregulated land reclamation should end; coastal shallows, wetlands and other natural ecosystems should have legal protection. It is difficult to restore large areas of wetlands that have been covered with tarmac, concrete or buildings, but we should not wait till nature punishes us with tidal waves, floods and red tides before we decide to give ecosystems their proper place. It is a lesson we cannot afford to learn. Jiang Gaoming is a professor at the Chinese Academy of Sciences’ Institute of Botany. He is also vice secretary-general of the UNESCO China-MAB (Man and the Biosphere) Committee and a member of the UNESCO MAB Urban Group.