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a. DNA b. to mutate c. a chimpanzee d. linguistics e. innate f. an artefact g. evolutionary h. civilised How Humans Evolved Language A Thanks to the field of linguistics we know much about the development of the 5,000 plus languages in existence today. We can describe their grammar and pronunciation and see how their spoken and written forms have changed over time. For example, we understand the origins of the Indo-European group of languages, which includes Norwegian, Hindi and English, and can trace them back to tribes in eastern Europe in about 3000 BC. So, we have mapped out a great deal of the history of language, but there are still areas we know little about. Experts are beginning to look at the field of evolutionary biology to find out how the human species developed to be able to use language. So far, there are far more questions and half-theories than answers. B We know that human language is far more complex than that of even our nearest and most intelligent relatives like chimpanzees. We can express complex thoughts, convey subtle emotions and communicate about abstract concepts such as the past and future. And we do this following a set of structural rules, known as grammar. Do only humans use an innate system of rules to govern the order of words? Perhaps not, as some research may suggest dolphins share this capability because they are able to recognise when these rules are broken. C If we want to know where our capability for complex language came from, we need to look at how our brains are different from other animals. This relates to more than just brain size; it is important what other things our brains can do and when and why they evolved that way. And for this there are very few physical clues; artefacts left by our ancestors don't tell us what speech they were capable of making. One thing we can see in the remains of early humans, however, is the development of the mouth, throat and tongue. By about 100,000 years ago, humans had evolved the ability to create complex sounds. Before that, evolutionary biologists can only guess whether or not early humans communicated using more basic sounds. D Another question is, what is it about human brains that allowed language to evolve in a way that it did not in other primates? At some point, our brains became able to make our mouths produce vowel and consonant sounds, and we developed the capacity to invent words to name things around us. These were the basic ingredients for complex language. The next change would have been to put those words into sentences, similar to the 'protolanguage' children use when they first learn to speak. No one knows if the next step – adding grammar to signal past, present and future, for example, or plurals and relative clauses – required a further development in the human brain or was simply a response to our increasingly civilised way of living together. Between 100,000 and 50,000 years ago, though, we started to see the evidence of early human civilisation, through cave paintings for example; no one knows the connection between this and language. Brains didn't suddenly get bigger, yet humans did become more complex and more intelligent. Was it using language that caused their brains to develop? Or did their more complex brains start producing language? E More questions lie in looking at the influence of genetics on brain and language development. Are there genes that mutated and gave us language ability? Researchers have found a gene mutation that occurred between 200,000 and 100,000 years ago, which seems to have a connection with speaking and how our brains control our mouths and face. Monkeys have a similar gene, but it did not undergo this mutation. It's too early to say how much influence genes have on language, but one day the answers might be found in our DNA. Match the headings with the parts of the text (A- E Paragraphs) a. The tiny change that may separate us from monkeys b. What we know c. How linguistic capacity evolved d. The physical evidence e. How unique are we? 1. ____ 2. ____ 3. ____ 4. ____ 5. ____ Are the sentences true or false? 1. Experts fully understand how the Hindi language developed. 2. The grammar of dolphin language follows the same rules as human language. 3. Brain size is not the only factor in determining language capability. 4. The language of very young children has something in common with the way our prehistoric ancestors may have spoken. 5. When people started using complex language, their brains got bigger. 6. The role of genetics in language capacity is not yet clear. Discussion Do you think monkeys and dolphins have complex language like humans do?

a. to be down to b. a civilian c. to eradicate d. to sustain e. optimism f. to fuel g. life expectancy h. contraception 1. _____ to support 2. _____ to make something increase or stronger 3. _____ methods of preventing pregnancy 4. _____ to make something disappear forever 5. _____ how long is a person expected to live 6. _____ positive thinking 7. _____ someone who is not a soldier THE STATE OF THE WORLD If your view of the world comes from watching the news and reading newspapers, you could be forgiven for lying awake at night worrying about the future. Apparently, rising violence and population rates mean humans are both killing each other in ever larger numbers and being born at rates the world's resources can't sustain. To make matters worse, all the wealth is concentrated on a handful of people e in the word's richest countries. People in low-income countries live in poverty while the West gets richer. Depressing, isn't it? But do the statistics support our negative world view or is the world actually improving? Let's take the global population first. It's around 7 billion now, in line with figures predicted by the UN in 1958. By the year 2100, the same experts predict it will be around 11 billion. But did you know that 11 billion is probably as high as that number will get? The rate of increase will slow down in the second half of this century thanks to falling birth rates today. Falling birth rates? Yes, that's right. In the last two centuries, improvements in technology and health meant fewer children died young, fuelling rapid population growth. These large families produced even more children who survived into adulthood and had their own children. But with the wider availability of contraception in the 1960s, the global average number of babies per woman has declined from six babies per woman to as low as two. The biggest factor in child mortality is poverty. And while it's still true that only 20 per cent of the world takes about 74 per cent of the world's income, 60 per cent of the world now falls into a middle-income group, with 11.6 per cent – the smallest amount of people in history – still living in conditions of extreme poverty. If the majority of the world's people have money, international aid could realistically achieve the UN target of eradicating poverty by 2030. As poverty goes down, life expectancy goes up, birth rates go down because parents can expect their existing children to survive, and the global population stabilises. As for news stories that make us think the world is an increasingly violent place, there is cause for some optimism too. Between the end of World War II and 1990, there were 30 wars that killed more than 100,000 people. Today there are still civil wars, but countries are mostly co-existing more peacefully than in the past. However, terrorism has shot up in the last few years and, since World War II, wars have killed many more civilians than soldiers. Even for civilians, though, the statistics are not all bad. Although deaths are nine times more likely to be a result of violent crime than political conflict, the global murder rate fell slightly, from 8 per 100,000 people in 2000 to about 5.3 in 2015. Of course, none of this means the world is perfect, and whether you personally are affected by war and poverty is often down to the lottery of where you're born. Also, we still face huge problems of our own making, particularly environmental ones like global warming, and wealth and natural resources need to be distributed more fairly. But not all the news is bad news, whatever the TV and newspapers might say. Let's test your comprehension in reading. a. 74% b. 11 billion c. 5.3 d. 60% d. 11.6% e. 20% 1. _____ the expected peak global population 2. _____ the size of the richest group of people 3. _____ the amount of the richest group's income 4. _____ the amount of people who are neither poor or rich 5. _____ the amount of people with least money Choose the best answer: 1. Which factor does NOT cause the birth rate to fall? a. Improvements in healthcare b. The availability of contraception c. Poverty 2. One of the UN's targets for 2030 is to ... a. end poverty. b. increase life expectancy. c. makes population levels stable. 3. People are more likely to be killed … a. by soldiers. b. by politicians. c. by criminals. 4. There is a reason to be optimistic because … a. you might win the lottery. b. there are some positives despite what the newspapers report. c. we're making progress with environmental problems. Discussion How optimistic are you about the world?

Choose the word that does not belong. 1. Which word does not belong? a. sulfur b. cardboard c. methane d. carbon 2.Which word does not belong? a. astonishing b. amazing c. tedious d. remarkable 3. Which word does not belong? a. data b. query c. evidence d. findings 4. Which word does not belong? a. speculate b. suspect c. consider d. rehearse 5. Which word does not belong? a. periodically b. repeatedly c. consistently d. frequently 6. Which word does not belong? a. source b. result c. origin d. root LIFE ON MARS A new study published in the journal Science shows definitive evidence of organic matter on the surface of Mars. The data was collected by NASA's nuclear-powered rover of Curiosity. It confirms earlier findings that the Red Planet once contained carbon-based compounds. These compounds – also called organic molecules – are essential ingredients for life as scientists understand it. The organic molecules were found in Mars's Gale Crater, a large area that may have been a watery lake over three billion years ago. The rover encountered traces of the molecule in rocks extracted from the area. The rocks also contain sulfur, which scientists speculate helped preserve the organics even when the rocks were exposed to the harsh radiation on the surface of the planet.   Scientists are quick to state that the presence of these organic molecules is not sufficient evidence for ancient life on Mars, as the molecules could have been formed by non-living processes. But it's still one of the most astonishing discoveries, which could lead to future revelations. Especially when one considers the other startling find that Curiosity uncovered around five years ago. The rover analyses the air around it periodically, and in 2014 it found the air contained another of the most basic organic molecules and a key ingredient of natural gas: methane. One of the characteristics of methane is that it only survives a few hundred years. This means that something, somewhere on Mars, is replenishing the supply. According to NASA, Mars emits thousands of tons of methane at a time. The level of methane rises and falls at seasonal intervals in the year, almost as if the planet is breathing it.   NASA suspects the methane comes from deep under the surface of the planet. The variations in temperature on the surface of Mars cause the molecule to flow upwards at higher or lower levels. For example, in the Martian winter the gas could get trapped in underground icy crystals. These crystals, called clathrates, melt in the summer and release the gas. However, the source of the methane is still a complete mystery.   The world of astrobiology considers both of these studies as historical milestones. According to this information, Mars is not a dead planet. On the contrary, it is quite active and may be changing and becoming more habitable. Of course, this means further research is necessary. Scientists say they need to send new equipment to Mars, equipment that can measure the air and soil with more precision. There are already missions underway. The European Space Agency's ExoMars ship lands in 2020 and will be able to drill into the ground on Mars to analyse what it finds. Additionally, NASA is sending another Mars Rover in the same year to collect samples of Martian soil and return them to Earth.   The possibility of life on Mars has fascinated humans for generations. It has been the subject of endless science-fiction novels and films. Are we alone in the universe or have there been other life forms within our Solar System? If the current missions to the Red Planet continue, it looks as if we may discover the answer very soon.  Choose the correct answer. 1. The study in the journal 'Science' was written by NASA scientists. True False Not given 2. This is not the first study to suggest that life existed on Mars in the past. True False Not given 3. A scientific vehicle found very small elements of an organic molecule within water extracted from the planet. True False Not given 4. It is believed that this conclusively proves that there was once life on the planet. True False Not given 5. Methane is a natural molecule that is a sign of life. True False Not given 6. All organic molecules have a limited lifespan. True False Not given 7. Mars can be said to have a winter and a summer. True False Not given 8. There are at least two more scientific expeditions heading to Mars. True False Not given Discussion Do you think people will live on Mars?  

desperation Match the words with the definitions. a. creepy b. suspense c. to jump out of your skin d. handy e. uninhabited f. a cliche g. resourceful _____1. producing a sense of fear or making you feel uncomfortable _____2. an idea that has been used so often that people think it is bad, unoriginal or boring _____3. useful or convenient _____4. a feeling of pleasurable excitement while waiting to find out what is going to happen _____5. not lived in by people _____6. able to solve problems and act imaginatively in difficult times _____7. the feeling of needing or wanting something so much you will do anything to get it _____8. to be so frightened or surprised by something that you physically move Five horror film clichés Since almost the beginning of cinema, we have had scary films. Of all the genres that exist, horror is perhaps one of the most conventional. Many horror films rely on specific plot devices, also called tropes, to make their audience frightened. When a trope is used too much, it can become a cliché. But when used well, it can really make us jump out of our skin. Here are some of the most used, and perhaps abused, clichés in horror films. 1 No matter what kind of house it is, the basement is a scary place in horror films. That's usually where something is hiding or where the evil psychopath has hidden their tools. Basements are always dark and often damp. You can only reach them by a narrow staircase. And basements are always creepy, even when there isn't anything down there. 2 In older horror films, when protagonists were in desperation, it was difficult or impossible for them to call for help or call the police. Mobile phones have made that situation a bit less believable now. What's the solution to maintain suspense? No phone coverage! If you're a hero in a horror film, it's almost certain that at a key moment, just when you absolutely need to call for help, you will not have any coverage at all. Or your phone battery will die just as you are making the call. Or both. 3 Horror films love uninhabited places. This could be an abandoned hospital, a scary empty house or a ghost town. There's something about lonely, empty places. What was it like when people lived there? Why did they leave? Maybe it's also that they are so quiet, which can be very scary too. Of course, abandoned places are also handy for horror film directors in that it's more believable that you will have no phone coverage there either (see above). 4 The hero has been driving for hours. It's night-time and it's beginning to rain. Suddenly he sees a person on the side of the road. Maybe the company will keep him awake? In horror films, giving anybody a ride is asking for trouble. The hero always does it, and it always ends badly. 5 This horror film cliché was especially popular with horror films of the late 20th century. It starts with a group of teenagers all enjoying themselves, and it ends with everyone dead except one girl. At the beginning the girl is usually innocent, shy and not particularly strong. By the end, she has become the toughest and most resourceful person in the world. The last girl almost always wins in the end. Match the subheading with the paragraph (1–5). There is one extra subheading you do not need. a. Nobody lives here b. I can't get through! c. Deadly hitchhiker d. Don't make me go down there! e. Is he really dead? f. Lone survivor 1. _____ 2. _____ 3. _____ 4. _____ 5. _____ Extra: _____ Complete the sentences with the correct form of the word in CAPITALS. 8 items remaining 1. It's asking for trouble – it will end ________. BAD 2. Horror is a very __________  genre. CONVENTION 3. The main character's phone battery always dies or they have no mobile __________ when they need to call for help. COVER 4. The last surviving character always turns out to be the most  ___________ person in the world. RESOURCE 5.  There was no one there! The town is almost completely ___________. INHABIT 6.  His voice was full of __________.  DESPERATE 7. The last surviving girl always turns into the ________ person in the world. TOUGH 8. The story was too _________to be true. BELIEVE Discussion Do you like horror films? Can you think of any more horror film clichés?